Transient Interphase Microtubules Appear in Differentiating Sponge Cells.

Microtubules are an indispensable component of all eukaryotic cells due to their role in mitotic spindle formation, yet their organization and number can vary greatly in the interphase. The last common ancestor of all eukaryotes already had microtubules and microtubule motor proteins moving along them. Sponges are traditionally regarded as the oldest animal phylum. Their body does not have a clear differentiation into tissues, but it contains several distinguishable cell types. The choanocytes stand out among them and are responsible for creating a flow of water with their flagella and increasing the filtering and feeding efficiency of the sponge. Choanocyte flagella contain microtubules, but thus far, observing a developed system of cytoplasmic microtubules in non-flagellated interphase sponge cells has been mostly unsuccessful. In this work, we combine transcriptomic analysis, immunofluorescence, and electron microscopy with time-lapse recording to demonstrate that microtubules appear in the cytoplasm of sponge cells only when transdifferentiation processes are activated. We conclude that dynamic cytoplasmic microtubules in the cells of sponges are not a persistent but rather a transient structure, associated with cellular plasticity.

Conservative and Atypical Ferritins of Sponges.

Ferritins comprise a conservative family of proteins found in all species and play an essential role in resistance to redox stress, immune response, and cell differentiation. Sponges (Porifera) are the oldest Metazoa that show unique plasticity and regenerative potential. Here, we characterize the ferritins of two cold-water sponges using proteomics, spectral microscopy, and bioinformatic analysis. The recently duplicated conservative HdF1a/b and atypical HdF2 genes were found in the Halisarca dujardini genome. Multiple related transcripts of HpF1 were identified in the Halichondria panicea transcriptome. Expression of HdF1a/b was much higher than that of HdF2 in all annual seasons and regulated differently during the sponge dissociation/reaggregation. The presence of the MRE and HRE motifs in the HdF1 and HdF2 promotor regions and the IRE motif in mRNAs of HdF1 and HpF indicates that sponge ferritins expression depends on the cellular iron and oxygen levels. The gel electrophoresis combined with specific staining and mass spectrometry confirmed the presence of ferric ions and ferritins in multi-subunit complexes. The 3D modeling predicts the iron-binding capacity of HdF1 and HpF1 at the ferroxidase center and the absence of iron-binding in atypical HdF2. Interestingly, atypical ferritins lacking iron-binding capacity were found in genomes of many invertebrate species. Their function deserves further research.

Correction: Iron metabolic pathways in the processes of sponge plasticity.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228722.].

Iron metabolic pathways in the processes of sponge plasticity.

The ability to regulate oxygen consumption evolved in ancestral animals and is intrinsically linked to iron metabolism. The iron pathways have been intensively studied in mammals, whereas data on distant invertebrates are limited. Sea sponges represent the oldest animal phylum and have unique structural plasticity and capacity to reaggregate after complete dissociation. We studied iron metabolic factors and their expression during reaggregation in the White Sea cold-water sponges Halichondria panicea and Halisarca dujardini. De novo transcriptomes were assembled using RNA-Seq data, and evolutionary trends were analyzed with bioinformatic tools. Differential expression during reaggregation was studied for H. dujardini. Enzymes of the heme biosynthesis pathway and transport globins, neuroglobin (NGB) and androglobin (ADGB), were identified in sponges. The globins mutate at higher evolutionary rates than the heme synthesis enzymes. Highly conserved iron-regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) presumably interacts with the iron-responsive elements (IREs) found in mRNAs of ferritin (FTH1) and a putative transferrin receptor NAALAD2. The reaggregation process is accompanied by increased expression of IRP1, the antiapoptotic factor BCL2, the inflammation factor NFκB (p65), FTH1 and NGB, as well as by an increase in mitochondrial density. Our data indicate a complex mechanism of iron regulation in sponge structural plasticity and help to better understand general mechanisms of morphogenetic processes in multicellular species.

Characterization of the 20S proteasome of the lepidopteran, Spodoptera frugiperda.

Multiple complexes of 20S proteasomes with accessory factors play an essential role in proteolysis in eukaryotic cells. In this report, several forms of 20S proteasomes from extracts of Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells were separated using electrophoresis in a native polyacrylamide gel and examined for proteolytic activity in the gel and by Western blotting. Distinct proteasome bands isolated from the gel were subjected to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and identified as free core particles (CP) and complexes of CP with one or two dimers of assembly chaperones PAC1-PAC2 and activators PA28γ or PA200. In contrast to the activators PA28γ and PA200 that regulate the access of protein substrates to the internal proteolytic chamber of CP in an ATP-independent manner, the 19S regulatory particle (RP) in 26S proteasomes performs stepwise substrate unfolding and opens the chamber gate in an ATP-dependent manner. Electron microscopic analysis suggested that spontaneous dissociation of RP in isolated 26S proteasomes leaves CPs with different gate sizes related presumably to different stages in the gate opening. The primary structure of 20S proteasome subunits in Sf9 cells was determined by a search of databases and by sequencing. The protein sequences were confirmed by mass spectrometry and verified by 2D gel electrophoresis. The relative rates of sequence divergence in the evolution of 20S proteasome subunits, the assembly chaperones and activators were determined by using bioinformatics. The data confirmed the conservation of regular CP subunits and PA28γ, a more accelerated evolution of PAC2 and PA200, and especially high divergence rates of PAC1.

Essential function of VCP/p97 in infection cycle of the nucleopolyhedrovirus AcMNPV in Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cells.

The protein VCP/p97 (also named CDC48 and TER94) belongs to a type II subfamily of the AAA+ATPases and controls cellular proteostasis by acting upstream of proteasomes in the ubiquitin-proteasome protein degradation pathway. The function of VCP/p97 in the baculovirus infection cycle in insect cells remains unknown. Here, we identified VCP/p97 in the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells and analyzed the replication of the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus, AcMNPV, in Sf9 cells in which the VCP/p97 function was inhibited. The specific allosteric inhibitor of the VCP/p97 ATPase activity, NMS-873, did not deplete VCP/p97 in infected cells but caused a dose-dependent inhibition of viral DNA synthesis and efficiently suppressed expression of viral proteins and production of budded virions. NMS-873 caused accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins in a manner similar to the inhibitor of proteasome activity, Bortezomib. This suggests the essential function of VCP/p97 in the baculovirus infection cycle might be associated, at least in part, with the ubiquitin-proteasome system.

Detection of active proteasome structures in brain extracts: proteasome features of August rat brain with violations in monoamine metabolism.

The aim of this work was to detect changes in proteasome pools of brain parts of August rats with monoamine metabolism violations in comparison with that of control Wistar rats. To reveal active proteasome structures, a method of native electrophoresis for the analysis of crude tissue fractions was developed. By means of this method and following Western blotting, the most pronounced changes in reorganization of proteasome structures were detected in proteasome pool of the brain cortex of August rats. Main findings are the enhanced expression of immune proteasome subtypes containing proteolytic subunit LMP2 and activator PA28αß as well as immune proteasome subtypes containing proteolytic subunit LMP7 and activator PA700 and simultaneously decreased expression of subtypes with subunit LMP2 and activator PA700 in the brain cortex of August rats compared to that of Wistar rats. These results were indirectly confirmed by SDS PAGE method followed by Western blotting, which showed the increased quantities of immune subunits and proteasome activators in the brain cortex of August rats compared to that of Wistar rats. Immune proteasomes were revealed by immunohistochemistry in neurons, but not in glial cells of August and Wistar rat cortex. The detected reorganization of proteasome pools is likely to be important for production of special peptides to provide the steady interaction between neurons and adaptation of central nervous system to conditions caused by monoamine metabolism deviations.

Proteomics of the 26S proteasome in Spodoptera frugiperda cells infected with the nucleopolyhedrovirus, AcMNPV.

Baculoviruses are large DNA viruses that infect insect species such as Lepidoptera and are used in biotechnology for protein production and in agriculture as insecticides against crop pests. Baculoviruses require activity of host proteasomes for efficient reproduction, but how they control the cellular proteome and interact with the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) of infected cells remains unknown. In this report, we analyzed possible changes in the subunit composition of 26S proteasomes of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9), cells in the course of infection with the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV). 26S proteasomes were purified from Sf9 cells by an immune affinity method and subjected to 2D gel electrophoresis followed by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and Mascot search in bioinformatics databases. A total of 34 homologues of 26S proteasome subunits of eukaryotic species were identified including 14 subunits of the 20S core particle (7 α and 7 ß subunits) and 20 subunits of the 19S regulatory particle (RP). The RP contained homologues of 11 of RPN-type and 6 of RPT-type subunits, 2 deubiquitinating enzymes (UCH-14/UBP6 and UCH-L5/UCH37), and thioredoxin. Similar 2D-gel maps of 26S proteasomes purified from uninfected and AcMNPV-infected cells at 48hpi confirmed the structural integrity of the 26S proteasome in insect cells during baculovirus infection. However, subtle changes in minor forms of some proteasome subunits were detected. A portion of the α5(zeta) cellular pool that presumably was not associated with the proteasome underwent partial proteolysis at a late stage in infection.

Proteasome functioning in breast cancer: connection with clinical-pathological factors.

Breast cancer is one of four oncology diseases that are most widespread in the world. Moreover, breast cancer is one of leading causes of cancer-related deaths in female population within economically developed regions of the world. So far, detection of new mechanisms of breast cancer development is very important for discovery of novel areas in which therapy approaches may be elaborated. The objective of the present study is to investigate involvement of proteasomes, which cleave up to 90% of cellular proteins and regulate numerous cellular processes, in mechanisms of breast cancer development. Proteasome characteristics in 106 patient breast carcinomas and adjacent tissues, as well as relationships of detected proteasome parameters with clinical-pathological factors, were investigated. Proteasome chymotrypsin-like activity was evaluated by hydrolysis of fluorogenic peptide Suc-LLVY-AMC. The expression of proteasome subunits was studied by Western-blotting and immunohistochemistry. The wide range of chymotrypsin-like activity in tumors was detected. Activity in tumors was higher if compared to adjacent tissues in 76 from 106 patients. Multiple analysis of generalized linear models discovered that in estrogen α-receptor absence, tumor growth was connected with the enhanced expression of proteasome immune subunit LMP2 and proteasome activator PA700 in tumor (at 95% confidence interval). Besides, by this analysis we detected some phenomena in adjacent tissue, which are important for tumor growth and progression of lymph node metastasis in estrogen α-receptor absence. These phenomena are related to the enhanced expression of activator PA700 and immune subunit LMP7. Thus, breast cancer development is connected with functioning of immune proteasome forms and activator PA700 in patients without estrogen α-receptors in tumor cells. These results could indicate a field for search of new therapy approaches for this category of patients, which has the worst prognosis of health recovery.

Egress of budded virions of Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus does not require activity of Spodoptera frugiperda HSP/HSC70 chaperones.

The induction of heat shock proteins in baculovirus infected cells is well documented. However a role of these chaperones in infection cycle remains unknown. The observation that HSP70s are associated with virions of different baculoviruses reported by several researchers suggests that HSPs might be structural components of viruses or involved in virion assembly. These hypotheses were examined by using a novel inhibitor of the ATPase and chaperoning activity of HSP/HSC70s, VER-155008. When VER-155008 was added early in infection, the synthesis of viral proteins, genome replication and the production of budded virions (BV) were markedly inhibited indicating the dependence of virus reproduction on host chaperones. However, BV production was unaffected when VER-155008 was added in the mid-replication phase which is after accumulation of products required for completion of the viral DNA replication. These results suggest that the final stages in assembly of BV and their egress from cells do not depend on chaperone activity of host HSP/HSC70s.

Proteotoxic stress induced by Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus infection of Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cells.

Baculovirus AcMNPV causes proteotoxicity in Sf9 cells as revealed by accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and aggresomes in the course of infection. Inhibition of proteasomes by lactacystin increased markedly the stock of ubiquitinated proteins indicating a primary role of proteasomes in detoxication. The proteasomes were present in Sf9 cells as 26S and 20S complexes whose protease activity did not change during infection. Proteasome inhibition caused a delay in the initiation of viral DNA replication suggesting an important role of proteasomes at early stages in infection. However, lactacystin did not affect ongoing replication indicating that active proteasomes are not required for genome amplification. At late stages in infection (24-48 hpi), aggresomes containing the ubiquitinated proteins and HSP/HSC70s showed gradual fusion with the vacuole-like structures identified as lysosomes by antibody to cathepsin D. This result suggests that lysosomes may assist in protection against proteotoxicity caused by baculoviruses absorbing the ubiquitinated proteins.

New insights into the induction of the heat shock proteins in baculovirus infected insect cells.

Eight members of the HSP/HSC70 family were identified in Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cells infected with Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) by 2D electrophoresis followed by mass spectrometry (MALDI/TOF) and a Mascot search. The family includes five HSP70s induced by AcMNPV-infection and three constitutive cognate HSC70s that remained abundant in infected cells. Confocal microscopy revealed dynamic changes in subcellular localization of HSP/HSC70s in the course of infection. At the early stages (4 to 10 hpi), a fraction of HSPs is localized in distinct speckles in cytoplasm. The speckles contained ubiquitinylated proteins suggesting that they may be aggresomes where proteins targeted by ubiquitin are sequestered or processed for proteolysis. S. frugiperda HSP90 was identified in the 2D gels by Western blotting. Its amount was unchanged during infection. A selective inhibitor of HSP90, 17-AAG, decreased the rate of viral DNA synthesis in infected cells suggesting a supportive role of HSP90 in virus replication.

An important role of the heat shock response in infected cells for replication of baculoviruses.

Baculoviruses serve as a stress factor that can activate both death-inducing and cytoprotective pathways in infected cells. In this report, induction of heat shock proteins (HSPs) of the 70-kDa family (HSP/HSC70) in Sf-9 cells after infection with AcMNPV was monitored by Western blot analysis. Two-dimensional electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel revealed changes in the cellular pattern of HSP/HSC70s and synthesis of a new member of the HSP/HSC70 family in the infected cells. Although infection with AcMNPV moderately increased the HSP/HSC70 content in cells under standard conditions, the infection potentiated the response to heat shock boosting the HSP/HSC70s content in infected cells several-fold in comparison with uninfected cells. Addition of KNK437, a known inhibitor of inducible HSPs, decreased the rate of viral DNA synthesis in infected cells more than one order of magnitude and markedly suppressed the release of budded viruses indicating the importance of the heat shock response for baculovirus replication.

New approach to study of T cellular immunity development: parallel investigation of lymphoid organ formation and changes in immune proteasome amount in rat early ontogenesis.

The expression pattern and distribution of proteasome immune subunits LMP7 and LMP2 in the developing rat spleen and liver as well as the periarterial lymphoid sheath formation were investigated. LMP7 and LMP2 were detected by immunoblotting in the spleen on the 21st embryonic day and during the first postnatal days in equal amounts. Their levels increased by the 8th and 18th postnatal days. Double immunofluorescent labeling the spleen cells revealed LMP7 and LMP2 in T and B lymphocytes localized in the red pulp in embryogenesis. Few T lymphocytes were discovered in periarterial zones on the 8th postnatal day. T lymphocytes filled these zones and formed lymphoid sheaths by the 18-19th day. In the liver, LMP7 and LMP2 were revealed by the 17-19th postnatal day. Immunofluorescent analysis showed their presence in hepatocytes at this period. The data suggest that T cell-mediated immune response in relation to hepatocytes is possible beginning from 18th to 19th postnatal day.